Borobudur is a ninth-century Mahayana Buddhist monument near Magelang,
Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square
platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with
2,672 relief
panels and 504 Buddha statues. A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded
by 72 Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa.
The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage.
The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows
a path circumambulating the monument while
ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu
(the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness).
During the journey the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of
stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall
and the balustrades.
Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the fourteenth
century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas
Stamford Raffles, the then British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by
native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several
restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between
1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian
government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year Buddhists in
Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument, and
Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.
Etymology
In Indonesian, ancient temples are known as
candi; thus "Borobudur Temple" is
locally known as Candi Borobudur. The term candi is also
used more loosely to describe any ancient structure, for example gates
and bathing structures. The origins of the name Borobudur however
are unclear,
although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no
longer known.
The name Borobudur was first written in Sir Thomas Raffles' book on Javan
history.
Raffles wrote about a monument called borobudur, but there are
no older documents suggesting the same name.
The only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the monument as a
holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu
Prapanca in 1365.
The name 'Bore-Budur', and thus 'BoroBudur', is thought to have been
written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby village of Bore; most candi
are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language, the monument should have been named
'BudurBoro'. Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to the
modern Javanese word Buda ('ancient') – i.e., 'ancient Boro'. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the
name ('Budur') comes from Javanese term bhudhara (mountain).
Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about the sima
(tax free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure
the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra.
Kamūlān itself from the word mula which means 'the place
of origin', a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably the ancestors of the Sailendras.
Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in Sanskrit
means "The mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of
Borobudur.
Location
Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an
elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing
and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo.
According to local myth, the area known as Kedu
Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place
and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility.
Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu
temples in the area, including the Prambanan
temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was
discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut,
are lined in one straight line position.
It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction
with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a
brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The
three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and
ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that
ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a
sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet
unknown.
Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur
was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above
the floor of the dried-out paleolake.
The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among
archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have
been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch
artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain
was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake.
Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often
serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of
Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures
in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus
Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana
Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east
Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also
thought to represent a lotus leaf.
Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists
because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.
Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing
out clay
sediments found near the site.
A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen
samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake
environment near Borobudur,
which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated
with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake
shore circa thirteenth and
fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic
activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One
of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the
direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.
History
Construction
There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its intended
purpose.
The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved
reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters
during the eight and ninth centuries. Borobudur was likely founded
around 800 AD.
This corresponds to the period between 760–830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra
dynasty in central Java,
when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan
Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years
and been completed during the reign of Samaratungga
in 825.
There is confusion between Hindu
and Buddhist
rulers in Java
around that time. The Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Lord
Buddha, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may
have been Hindus.
It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were
built on the plains and mountain around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist
monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the
Hindu Shiva
Prambanan
temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite King Sanjaya
commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be
built on the Ukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 miles) east of Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time
was possible because Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his
permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples.
In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written
in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD.
This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never
serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a
Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for
a Buddhist king to act likewise.
However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java
at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed
over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka
plateau.
This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan
complex, which was believed that it was erected by the victor Rakai
Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty's reply to Borobudur,
but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence
where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.
Abandonment
Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic
ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a
mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist
pilgrimage to it ceased. Somewhere between 928 and 1006, the center of
power moved to East Java region and a series of volcanic
eruptions took place; it is not certain whether the latter influenced
the former but several sources mention this as the most likely period of
abandonment.
Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were
disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the
fifteenth century.
The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories
gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck
and misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad)
from the eighteenth century mention cases of bad luck associated with
the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History
of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for a rebel who revolted
against the king of Mataram in 1709.
The hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to
death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the
Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of the
crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757.
In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what is
written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one
of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill
and died one day later.
Rediscovery
Following the Anglo-Dutch Java War, Java was under
British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed governor was
Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford
Raffles, who took great interest in the history of Java. He
collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local
inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour
to Semarang
in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the
village of Bumisegoro.
He was not able to make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a
Dutch engineer, to investigate.
In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down
vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the
danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his
findings to Raffles including various drawings. Although the discovery
is only mentioned by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the
monument's recovery, as one who had brought it to the world's
attention.
Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, continued
Cornelius' work and in 1835 the whole complex was finally unearthed. His
interest in Borobudur was more personal than official. Hartmann did not
write any reports of his activities; in particular, the alleged story
that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa.
In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome although what he
discovered remains unknown as the main stupa remains empty.
The Dutch East Indies government then
commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the
monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund was also
appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed
in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund
study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to
cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, C. Leemans,
who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources.
In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was
published, followed by its French translation a year later.
The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch-Flemish engraver, Isidore van Kinsbergen.
Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some
time largely as a source of souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters"
and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts
recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation
of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument.
As a result, the government appointed Groenveldt, an archeologist, to undertake a thorough
investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the
complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and
recommended it be left intact.
Contemporary events
Following the major 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO,
Borobudur is once again used as a place of worship and pilgrimage. Once a year, during the full
moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak (Indonesian: Waisak) day commemorating the birth, death, and
the time when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest
wisdom to become the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak is an official national holiday in Indonesia
and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking
from Mendut
to Pawon
and ending at Borobudur.
The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000
tourists of whom 36,000 were foreigners visited the monument.
The figure hiked into 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic
tourists) in the mid 1990s, before the
country's economy crisis.
Tourism development, however, has been criticized for not including the
local community on which occasional local conflict has arisen. In 2003, residents and small businesses around Borobudur organized
several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a provincial
government plan to build a three-story mall complex, dubbed the 'Java
World'.
On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged by nine bombs.
In 1991, a blind Muslim preacher, Husein Ali Al Habsyie, was sentenced
to life imprisonment for masterminding a series of
bombings in the mid 1980s including the temple attack.
Two other members of a right-wing extremist
group that carried out the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years
in 1986 and another man received a 13-year prison term. On 27 May 2006,
an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude on the Richter scale struck the south coast
of Central Java. The event had caused severe damage around the region
and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta,
but Borobudur remained intact.
On 28 August 2006 the Trail of Civilizations symposium was held in
Borobudur under the auspices of the governor of Central Java and the
Indonesian Ministry of Culture and Tourism, also present the
representatives from UNESCO and predominantly Buddhist nations of
Southeast Asia, such as Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam
and Cambodia.
Climax of the event was the "Mahakarya Borobudur" ballet performance in
front of the temple of Borobudur. It was choreographed to feature
traditional Javanese dancing, music and costumes, and tell the history
about the construction of the Borobudur. After the symposium, the
Mahakarya Borobudur ballet is performed several times, especially during
annual national Waisak commemoration at Borobudur
attended by Indonesian President.
UNESCO identified three specific areas of concern under the present
state of conservation: (i) vandalism by visitors; (ii) soil erosion in
the south-eastern part of the site; (iii) analysis and restoration of
missing elements.
The soft soil, the numerous earthquakes and heavy rains lead to the
destabilization of the structure. Earthquakes are by far the most
contributing factors, since not only stones fall down and arches
crumble, but the earth itself moves can move in waves, further
destroying the structure.[37]
The increasing popularity of the stupa brings in many visitors, most of
whom are from Indonesia. Despite warning signs on all levels not to
touch anything, the regular transmission of warnings over loudspeakers
and the presence of guards, vandalism on reliefs and statues is a common
occurrence and problem, leading to further deterioration. As of 2009,
there is no system in place to limit the number of visitors allowed per
day, or to introduce mandatory guided tours only.
Architecture
Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and
when viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric
Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the
Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind.
The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each
side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular.
The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one
large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous
decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken
from neighbouring rivers to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. Reliefs
were created in-situ after the building
had been completed. The monument is equipped with a good drainage
system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid
inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles
in the shape of giants or makaras.
Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other
structures built for this purpose. Instead of building on a flat
surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique
is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in
other temples and its general design similar to the shape of pyramid,
Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa,
instead of a temple.
A stupa is intended as a shrine for
the Lord Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols
of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of deity and
has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the monument's
meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational
worship in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were
guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top
platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that
guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred knowledge
according to the Buddhist cosmology.
Little is known about the architect Gunadharma.
His name is actually recounted from Javanese legendary folk tales
rather than written in old inscriptions. The basic unit measurement he
used during the construction was called tala, defined as the
length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the
chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle
finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.
The unit metrics is then obviously relative between persons, but the
monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed
frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect
had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur.
The identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist
temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of
the ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical,
astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and
Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base
(or foot), body, and top, which resembles the three major division of a
human body.
The base is a 123x123 m (403.5x403.5 ft) square in size and 4 meters
(13 ft) high of walls.
The body is composed of five square platforms each with diminishing
heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of
the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a
narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular
platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas,
arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the
center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument
(35 meters (115 ft) above ground level). Access to the upper part is
through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with a number of arched
gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned with Kala's head carved on top center of each portals with Makaras projecting from each sides.
This Kala-Makara style is commonly found in Javanese temples portal.
The main entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first
narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways
linking the monument to the low-lying plain.
The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental
preparation towards the ultimate goal according to the Buddhist
cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu
(the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world).
Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the
five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three
circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural
features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For
instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu
disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to
represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with
forms and names – changes into the world of the formless.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally
discovered.
The "hidden foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narrative
describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels
with short inscriptions that apparently describe instruction for the
sculptors, illustrating the scene to be carved.
The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which
remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be
covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the
hill.
There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the
original hidden foot was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu
Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture
and town planning.
Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was built with
detailed and meticulous design with aesthetics and religious compensation.
Reliefs
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212
decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is
2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the
hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana
and Manohara,
are grouped into 11 series encircled the monument with the total length
of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series
with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed
throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the
eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read
from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right.
This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of
circumambulation performed by pilgrims
who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary
to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper
part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part
of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second galleries
tell the story of the Buddha's former lives.
The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about
his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.
- The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel
provides one complete illustration of cause
and effect.
There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder,
with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy
activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their
subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are
also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full
panorama of samsara (the
endless cycle of birth and death).
- The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)
Main article: The birth of Buddha
(Lalitavistara)
The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from
the Tushita
heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[
The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu
(in present-day Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in
heavens and on earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.
Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his
crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya.
He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks,
penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this
event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a
sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to
the Lumbini
park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right
hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the
panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha.
- Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he
was born as Prince Siddhartha.
Avadanas
are similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva
himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary
persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same series in
the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the
Sudhanakumaravadana or the saintly deeds of Sudhana.
The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are
devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.
The remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do for
the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas stories
are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's
forefather).
- Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)
Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search
of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and
fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460
panels.
The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an
extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding 15
panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during
Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of
Jeta at Sravasti.
During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none
of them had satisfied him completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri
to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given the first doctrine. As his
journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order)
Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker
Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment),
Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk
Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker
Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva,
Queen Maya, Bodhisattva
Maitreya
and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a specific
doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third
gallery.
After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence
of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery.
The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of
Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's
achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
Buddha statues
Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many
statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square
platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level,
arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of
statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper
level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third
88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha
statues at the Rupadhatu level.
At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms),
Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The
first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16,
that add up to 72 stupas.
Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have
been stolen as collector's items, mostly by Western museums).
At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a
subtle difference between them in the mudras
or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra:
North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal
compass points according to Mahayana.
The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North,
East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass
direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the
fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the
same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.
They are Abhaya mudra for Amoghasiddhi
(north), Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava
(south), Dhyana mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra mudra for Vairochana (zenith).
Restoration
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when Yzerman, the Chairman of
the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden
foot.
Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in
1890–1891.
The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to
safeguard the monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission
consisting of three officials to assess the monument: Brandes, an art
historian, Theodoor van Erp, a Dutch army engineer officer, and Van de Kamer, a
construction engineer from the Department of Public Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the
government. First, the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting
the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts,
strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches,
archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, fencing off the courtyards,
providing proper maintenance and improving drainage by restoring floors
and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument
cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the
main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at that time around
48,800 Dutch guilders.
The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the
principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp.
The first seven months of his restoration was occupied with excavating
the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel
stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular
platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he
could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal that was
approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first glance
Borobudur had been restored to its old glory.
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused
on cleaning the sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage
problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging and the
reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration.
Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the
rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further
thorough renovation was urgently needed.
Small restorations have been performed since then, but not sufficient
for complete protection. In the late 1960s, the Indonesian
government had requested from the international community a major
renovation to protect the monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore
Borobudur was created.
The Indonesian government and UNESCO
then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big
restoration project between 1975–1982.
The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The
restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and
improved the drainage by embedding water channels into the monument.
Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This colossal project
involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total of US$
6,901,243.
After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991. It is listed under Cultural criteria (i) "to represent a masterpiece of
human creative genius", (ii) "to exhibit an important interchange of
human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the
world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts,
town-planning or landscape design", and (vi) "to be directly or tangibly
associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with
beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal
significance".[3]
Gallery of reliefs
Relief panel of a ship at Borobudur.
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Musicians performing a musical ensemble.
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The Apsara of Borobudur.
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The scene of King and Queen with their subjects.
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One relief on a corridor wall.
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A detailed carved relief stone.
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Borobudur Temple is one of the historical legacy must be guarded..^^
ReplyDeleteyes i think so. it has been doing by our government. let's vivit yogyakarta, and you will get unforgettable experience.
ReplyDeletemarvellous !!!..
ReplyDeletethe big temple in the world